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من طرف 7oda الجمعة أغسطس 27, 2010 5:36 pm
انا عملت البحث فى فرع واحد بس وهوfields of psychology
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http://en.wikipedia.org
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Introduction
Psychology
The word psychology comes from the ancient Greek ( ψυχή ) psyche ("soul," "mind") and (λογία ) ology ("study").
Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the
scientific study of mental processes and behavior. Psychology also
refers to the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human
activity, including problems of individuals' daily lives and the
treatment of mental illness.
Psychology differs from the other social sciences — anthropology,
economics, political science, and sociology — in seeking to explain the
mental processes and behavior of individuals. Psychology differs from
biology and neuroscience in that it is primarily concerned with the
interaction of mental processes and behavior on a systemic level, as
opposed to studying the biological or neural processes themselves. In
contrast, the subfield of neuropsychology studies the actual neural
processes and how they relate to the mental effects they subjectively
produce. Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological
bases of behavior and mental states.
Scope of psychology
Psychology is an extremely broad field, encompassing many different
approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the
major areas of inquiry that comprise psychology, divided into:
1. Fields of research psychology.
2. Fields of applied psychology.
1. Fields of research psychology
Research psychology encompasses the study of behavior for use in academic settings, and contains numerous areas.
It contains the areas of abnormal psychology, biological psychology,
cognitive psychology, comparative psychology, developmental psychology,
personality psychology, social psychology and others. Research
psychology is contrasted with applied psychology.
Abnormal psychology
Abnormal psychology is the study of abnormal behavior in order to
describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of functioning.
Abnormal psychology studies the nature of psychopathology and its
causes, and this knowledge is applied in clinical psychology to treating
patients with psychological disorders.
Biological psychology
Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological bases of
behavior and mental states. Because all behavior is controlled by the
central nervous system, it is sensible to study how the brain functions
in order to understand behavior. This is the approach taken in
behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology.
Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that aims to understand how
the structure and function of the brain relate to specific behavioral
and psychological processes. Often neuropsychologists are employed as
scientists to advance scientific or medical knowledge.
Neuropsychology is particularly concerned with the understanding of
brain injury in an attempt to work out normal psychological function.
The approach of cognitive neuroscience to studying the link between
brain and behavior is to use neuroimaging tools, such as fMRI, to
observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.
Cognitive psychology
The nature of thought is another core interest in psychology. Cognitive
psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying behavior.
It uses information processing as a framework for understanding the
mind. Perception, learning, problem solving, memory, attention, language
and emotion are all well researched areas.
Cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as
cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model
of mental function, informed by positivism and experimental psychology.
Cognitive science is very closely related to cognitive psychology, but
differs in some of the research methods used, and has a slightly greater
emphasis on explaining mental phenomena in terms of both behavior and
neural processing.
Both areas can use computational models to simulate phenomena of
interest. Because mental events cannot directly be observed,
computational models provide a tool for studying the functional
organization of the mind. Such models give cognitive psychologists a way
to study the "software" of mental processes independent of the
"hardware" it runs on, be it the brain or a computer.
Comparative psychology
Comparative psychology refers to the study of the behavior and mental
life of animals other than human beings. It is related to disciplines
outside of psychology that study animal behavior, such as ethology.
Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans, the
behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of
psychological research, either as a subject in its own right (e.g.,
animal cognition and ethology), or with strong emphasis about
evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of
gaining an insight into human psychology by means of comparison or via
animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience
of psychology (e.g., affective neuroscience and social neuroscience).
Developmental psychology
Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life
span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to
perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes
change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural,
social, or moral development.
Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods
to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in
experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games
and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically
useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the
mental processes of small infants.
In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study
aging and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times
of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Urie
Bronfenbrenner's theory of development in context (The Ecology of Human
Development - ISBN 0-674-22456-6) is influential in this field, as are
those mentioned in "Educational psychology" immediately below, as well
as many others. Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of
theorists in scientific psychology to inform their research.
Personality psychology
Personality psychology studies enduring psychological patterns of
behavior, thought and emotion, commonly called an individual's
personality. Theories of personality vary between different
psychological schools. Trait theories attempts to break personality down
into a number of traits, by use of factor analysis.
The number of traits have varied between theories. One of the first, and
smallest, models was that of Hans Eysenck, which had three dimensions:
extraversion—introversion, neuroticism—emotional stability, and
psychoticism.
Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of 16 personality factors. The theory
that has most empirical evidence behind it today may be the "Big Five"
theory, proposed by Lewis Goldberg and others.
A different, but well known, approach to personality is that of Sigmund
Freud, whose structural theory of personality divided personality into
the ego, superego, and id. Freud's theory of personality has been
criticized by many, including many mainstream psychologists.
Quantitative psychology
Quantitative psychology involves the application of statistical analysis
to psychological research, and the development of novel statistical
approaches for measuring and explaining human behavior.
It is a young field (only recently have Ph.D. programs in quantitative
psychology been formed), and it is loosely comprised of the subfields
psychometrics and mathematical psychology.
Psychometrics is the field of psychology concerned with the theory and
technique of psychological measurement, which includes the measurement
of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. Measurement
of these unobservable phenomena is difficult, and much of the research
and accumulated knowledge in this discipline has been developed in an
attempt to properly define and quantify such phenomena.
Psychometric research typically involves two major research tasks, namely:
(i) The construction of instruments and procedures for measurement.
(ii) The development and refinement of theoretical approaches to measurement.
Social psychology
Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social
behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and
how they relate to each other. Social Psychology aims to understand how
we make sense of social situations. For example, this could involve the
influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g., conformity or
persuasion), the perception and understanding of social cues, or the
formation of attitudes or stereotypes about other people.
Social cognition is a common approach and involves a mostly cognitive
and scientific approach to understanding social behavior. A
related area is community psychology, which examines psychological and
mental health issues on the level of the community rather than using the
individual as the unit of measurement. "Sense of community" has become
its conceptual center (Sarason, 1986; Chavis & Pretty, 1999).
2. Fields of applied psychology
Applied psychology encompasses both psychological research that is
designed to help individuals overcome practical problems and the
application of this research in applied settings. Much of applied
psychology research is utilized in other fields, such as business
management, product design, ergonomics, nutrition, and clinical
medicine. Applied psychology includes the areas of clinical psychology,
industrial and organizational psychology, human factors, forensic
psychology, health psychology, school psychology, community psychology
and others.
Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology is the application of abnormal psychology research
to the understanding, treatment, and assessment of psychopathology,
including behavioral and mental health concerns. It has traditionally
been associated with psychological treatment and psychotherapy, although
modern clinical psychology may take an eclectic approach, including a
number of therapeutic approaches. Typically, although working with many
of the same clients as psychiatrists, clinical psychologists do not
prescribe psychiatric drugs. Some clinical psychologists may focus on
the clinical management of patients with brain injury. This area is
known as clinical neuropsychology.
In recent years and particularly in the United States, a major split has
been developing between academic research psychologists in universities
and some branches of clinical psychology. Many research psychologists
believe that many contemporary clinicians use therapies based on
discredited theories and unsupported by empirical evidence of their
effectiveness. From the other side, these clinicians believe that the
research psychologists are ignoring their experience in dealing with
actual patients. The disagreement resulted in the formation of the
Association for Psychological Science by the research psychologists
as a new body distinct from the American Psychological Association.
The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be done inside
various therapy models. A popular model is the Cognitive-Behaviorial
therapy (CBT) framework. CBT is an umbrella term that refers to a number
of therapies which focus on changing cognitions and/or behaviors,
rather than changing behavior exclusively, or discovering the
unconscious causes of psychopathology (as in the psychodynamic school).
The two most famous CBT therapies are Aaron T. Beck's cognitive therapy
and Albert Ellis's rational emotive behavior therapy (with cognitive
therapy being, by far, the most extensively studied therapy in
contemporary clinical psychology).
Counseling psychology
Counseling psychology is a psychology specialty that facilitates
personal and interpersonal functioning across the lifespan with a focus
on emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related,
developmental, and organizational concerns. Counseling psychology
differs from clinical psychology in that it is focused more on normal
developmental issues and everyday stress rather than serious mental
disorders. Counseling psychologists are employed in a variety of
settings, including universities, schools, businesses, private practice,
and community mental health centers.
The emerging field of relationship counseling, which characterizes
ordinary human relationship successes and failures in concrete terms,
has the specific appeal of avoiding psychology's practice of ascribing
pathology to individuals who seek assistance. Current health insurance
reimbursement for psychological services commonly involves the
assignment of mental disease nomenclature(a feature that potential
clients may find offensive, and that could potentially be iatrogenic).
Relationship counseling, also referred to as "relationship education",
includes psychologists, psychiatrists, and social workers. It is based
on decades of university-based research, drawing on knowledge gained
through close observation and analysis of both successful and
unsuccessful marriages and family units.
Educational psychology
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational
settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology
of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. The
work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget and
Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and
educational practices.
Psychology and Law
Together, Forensic psychology and Legal Psychology compose the area
known as Psychology and Law. Most typically, forensic psychology is
practiced by clinical psychologists, and involves a clinical analysis of
a particular individual and an assessment of some specific psycho-legal
question. Typically, referrals to forensic practices constitute
assessments for individuals that have ostensibly suffered neurologic
insult(s). These patients have sought legal recourse, and the job of the
forensic psychologist is to demonstrate that there is or is not
(depending on their employment by either the prosecution or defense) a
cause-and-effect relation between the accident and the subsequent
(again, ostensible) neurologic change. Legal psychology is a
research-oriented field populated with researchers from several
different areas within psychology (although Social Psychologists are
typical).
Health psychologyHealth psychology is the application of psychological theory and
research to health, illness and health care. Whereas clinical psychology
focuses on mental health and neurological illness, health psychology is
concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related
behavior including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a
patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about
illness. Health psychologists may be involved in public health
campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on quality
of life or in research into the psychological impact of health and
social care.
Human factors psychology
Human factors psychology is the study of how cognitive and psychological
processes affect our interaction with tools and objects in the
environment. The goal of research in human factors psychology is to
better design objects by taking into account the limitations and biases
of human mental processes and behavior.
Industrial and organizational psychology
Industrial and organizational psychology (I/O) is among the newest
fields in psychology. Industrial Psychology focuses on improving,
evaluating, and predicting job performance while Organizational
Psychology focuses on how organizations impact and interact with
individuals. In 1910, through the works and experiments of Hugo
Munsterberg and Walter Dill Scott, Industrial Psychology became
recognized as a legitimate part of the social science. Organizational
Psychology was not officially added until the 1970s and since then, the
field has flourished. The Society for Industrial Organizational
Psychology has approximately 3400 professional members and 1900 student
members. These two numbers combine to make up only about four percent of
the members in the American Psychology Association but the number has
been rising since 1939 when there were only one hundred professional I/O
psychologists.
I/O psychologists are employed by academic institutions, consulting
firms, internal human resources in industries, and governmental
institutions. Various universities across the United States are
beginning to strengthen their I/O Psychology programs due to the
increase of interest and job demand in the field.
Industrial organizational psychologists look at questions regarding
things such as who to hire, how to define and measure successful job
performance, how to prepare people to be more successful in their jobs,
how to create and change jobs so that they are safer and make people
happier, and how to structure the organization to allow people to
achieve their potential.
School psychology
School psychology is the area of discipline that is dedicated to helping
young people succeed academically, socially, and emotionally. School
psychologists collaborate with educators, parents, and other
professionals to create safe, healthy, and supportive learning
environments for all students that strengthen connections between home
and school. They are trained to be experts in educational and behavioral
assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have
extensive training in research. Currently, school psychology is the only
field in which a professional can be called a "psychologist" without a
doctoral degree, with the National Association of School Psychologists
(NASP) recognizing the Specialist degree as the entry level.
This is a matter of controversy, however, as the APA does not recognize
anything below a doctorate as the entry level for a psychologist.
Specialist-level school psychologists, who typically receive three years
of graduate training, function almost exclusively within school
systems, while those at the doctoral-level are found in a number of
other settings as well, including universities, hospitals, clinics, and
private practice.
References
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychology
2. "Yucologia hoc est de hominis perfectione, anima, ortu", published in
Marburg in 1590, was written by the German scholastic philosopher
Rudolf Goeckel (1547-1628), who often goes by the Latinized Rudolph
Goclenius.
3. Marko Marulić (1450-1524) used the term "psychology" in the title of
his Latin treatise "Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae." Although
the treatise itself has not been preserved, its title appears in a list
of Marulic's works compiled by his younger contemporary, Franjo
Bozicevic-Natalis in his "Vita Marci Maruli Spalatensis" (Krstić, 1964).
4. A b c d Industrial and Organization Psychology, Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.
5. http://nasponline.org/about_sp/whatis.aspx
6. Cohen, J. (1994). The Earth is round, p < .05. American Psychologist, 49
Index
-Introduction 1
-Scope of psychology 2
-Fields of research psychology 2
Abnormal psychology 2
Biological psychology 2
Cognitive psychology 3
Comparative psychology 4
Developmental psychology 4
Personality psychology 5
Quantitative psychology 5
Social psychology 6
-Fields of applied psychology 7
Clinical psychology 7
Counseling psychology 8
Educational psychology 8
Psychology and Law 9
Health psychology 9
Human factors psychology 9
Industrial and organizational psychology 9
School psychology 10
References 11
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